References for the scientific data about the health benefits of Omega 3 fatty acids and CLA

List of References

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 Culp BR, Lands WE, Lucches BR, Pitt B, Romson J: The effect of dietary supplementation of fish oil on experimental myocardial infarction.Prostaglandins .20 :1021 –1031,1980 .[Medline]Dyerberg J, Bang HO: Haemostatic function and platelet polyunsaturated fatty acids in Eskimos.Lancet2 :433 –435,1979 .[Medline]

 Hirai A, Hamazaki T, Terano T, Nishikawa T, Tamura Y, Kumagai A, Sajiki J: Eicosapentaenoic acid and platelet function in Japanese.Lancet2 :1132 [Letter],1982 .

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 Prickett JD, Robinson DR, Steinberg AD: Dietary enrichment with the polyunsaturated fatty acid eicosapentaenoic acid prevents proteinuria and prolongs survival in NZB x NZW F1 mice.J Clin Invest68 :556 –559,1981 .[Medline]

 Prickett JD, Robinson DR, Steinberg AD: Effects of dietary enrichment with eicosapentaenoic acid upon autoimmune nephritis in female NZB x NZW F1 mice.Arthritis Rheum26 :133 –139,1983 .[Medline]

 Karmali RA, Marsh J, Fuchs C: Effect of omega-3 fatty acids on growth of a rat mammary tumor.J Natl Cancer Inst73 :457 –461,1984 .[Medline]

 Simopoulos AP: Omega-3 fatty acids in health and disease and in growth and development.Am J Clin Nutr54 :438 –463,1991 .[Abstract]

 Weber PC, Fischer S, von Schacky C, Lorenz R, Strasser T: Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and eicosanoid formation in man.In Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE (eds):"Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods." Orlando: Academic Press, pp49 –60,1986 .

 Lewis RA, Lee TH, Austen KF: Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on the generation of products of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway. In Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE (eds):"Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods." Orlando, Academic Press, pp227 –238,1986 .

 Burr ML, Fehily AM, Gilbert JF, Rogers S, Holliday RM, Sweetnam PM, Elwood PC, Deadman NM: Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on death and myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART).Lancet2 :757 –761,1989 .[Medline]

 Leaf A: Cardiovascular effects of fish oils. Beyond the platelet.Circulation82 :624 –628,1990 .[Free Full Text]

 Leaf A, Weber PC: Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids.N Engl J Med318 :549 –557,1988 .[Medline]

 Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE (eds):"Health Effects of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods." Academic Press, Orlando,1986 .

 Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, Barlow SM (eds):"Health Effects of w3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods," vol. 66, World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel: Karger,1991 .

 Von Schacky C: Prophylaxis of atherosclerosis with marine omega-3 fatty acids: a comprehensive strategy.Ann Intern Med107 :890 –899,1988 .

 Seed MP, Willoughby DA: COX-2, HO NO! Cyclooxygenase-2, heme oxygenase and nitric oxide synthase: their role and interactions in inflammation. BIRAs Symposium, Saint Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, 26 April 1996.Inflamm Res46 :279 –281,1997 .[Medline]

 Laird JM, Herrero JF, Garcia de la Rubia P, Cervero F: Analgesic activity of the novel COX-2 preferring NSAID, meloxicam in mono-arthritic rats: central and peripheral components.Inflamm Res46 :203 –210,1997 .[Medline]

 Sheng GG, Shao J, Sheng H, Hooton EB, Isakson PC, Morrow JD, Coffey Jr RJ, DuBois RN, Beauchamp RD: A selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor suppresses the growth of H-ras-transformed rat intestinal epithelial cells.Gastroenterology113 :1883 –1891,1997 .[Medline]

 Singer P, Hueve J: Blood pressure-lowering effect of fish oil, propranolol and the combination of both in mildly hypertensive patients.World Rev Nutr Diet66 :522 [Abstract],1991 .

 Kremer JM, Lawrence DA, Jubiz W: Different doses of fish-oil fatty acid ingestion in active rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective study of clinical and immunological parameters. In Galli C, Simopoulos AP (eds):"Dietary 3 and 6 Fatty Acids: Biological Effects and Nutritional Essentiality." New York: Plenum, pp343 –350,1989 .

 Kremer JM, Robinson DR: Studies of dietary supplementation with 3 fatty acids in patients with rheumatoid arthritis.World Rev Nutr Diet66 :367 –382,1991 .[Medline]

 Allen BR: Fish oil in combination with other therapies in the treatment of psoriasis. In Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, Barlow SM (eds):"Health Effects of 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods," vol. 66, World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel: Karger, pp436 –445,1991 .

 Stenson WF, Cort D, Rodgers J, Burakoff R, DeSchryver-Kecskemeti K, Gramlich L, Beeken W: Dietary supplementation with fish oil in ulcerative colitis.Ann Intern Med116 :609 –614,1992 .[Medline]

 Dehmer GJ, Popma JJ, van den Berg EK, Eichhorn EJ, Prewitt JB, Campbell WB, Jennings L, Willerson JT, Schmitz JM: Reduction in the rate of early restenosis after coronary angioplasty by a diet supplemented with n-3 fatty acids.N Engl J Med319 :733 –40,1988 .[Abstract]

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 Clarke SD: Polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene transcription: a molecular mechanism to improve the metabolic syndrome.J Nutr131 :1129 –1132,2001 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Price PT, Nelson CM, Clarke SD: Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid regulation of gene expression.Curr Opin Lipidol11 :3 –7,2000 .[Medline]

 Jump DB, Clarke SD: Regulation of gene expression by dietary fat.Annu Rev Nutr19 :63 –90,1999 .[Medline]

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 Chandrasekar B, Fernandes G. Decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines and increased antioxidant enzyme gene expression by -3 lipids in murine lupus nephritis.Biochem Biophys Res Commun200 :893 –898,1994 .[Medline]

 Cleland LG, James MJ: Rheumatoid arthritis and the balance of dietary N-6 and N-3 essential fatty acids.Br J Rheumatol36 :513 –514,1997 .[Free Full Text]

 Cleland LG, Hill CL, James MJ: Diet and arthritis.Baillieres Clin Rheumatol9 :771 –785,1995 .[Medline]

 Broughton KS, Johnson CS, Pace BK, Liebman M, Kleppinger KM: Reduced asthma symptoms with n-3 fatty acid ingestion are related to 5-series leukotriene production.Am J Clin Nutr65 :1011 –1017,1997 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Gibney MJ, Hunter B: The effects of short- and long-term supplementation with fish oil on the incorporation of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids into cells of the immune system in healthy volunteers.Eur J Clin Nutr47 :255 –259,1993 .[Medline]

 Marangoni F, Angeli MT, Colli S, Eligini S, Tremoli E, Sirtori CR, Galli C: Changes of n-3 and n-6 fatty acidsin plasma and circulating cells of normal subjects, after prolonged administration of 20:5 (EPA) and 22:6 (DHA) ethyl esters and prolonged washout.Biochim Biophys Acta1210 :55 –62,1993 .[Medline]

 Weber PC, Leaf A: Cardiovascular effects of omega 3 fatty acids. Atherosclerosis risk factor modification by omega 3 fatty acids. In Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, Barlow SM (eds):"Health Effects of w3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods," vol. 66, World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel: Karger, pp218 –232,1991 .

 Woods A, Brull DJ, Humphries SE, Montgomery HE: Genetics of inflammation and risk of coronary artery disease: the central role of interleukin-6.Eur Heart J21 :1574 –83,2000 .[Free Full Text]

 Robinson DR, Urakaze M, Huang R, Taki H, Sugiyama E, Knoell CT, Xu L, Yeh ET, Auron PE: Dietary marine lipids suppress continuous expression of interleukin-1 beta gene transcription.Lipids31 (Suppl) :S23 –S31,1996 .[Medline]

 Simopoulos AP: The role of fatty acids in gene expression: health implications.Ann Nutr Metab40 :303 –11,1996 .[Medline]

 Dinarello CA: The role of interleukin-1 in disease.N Engl J Med328 :106 –113,1993 .[Free Full Text]

 Vassalli P: The pathophysiology of tumor necrosis factors.Annu Rev Immunol10 :411 –452,1992 .[Medline]

 Endres S, Ghorbani R, Kelley VE, Georgilis K, Lonnemann G, van der Meer JW, Cannon JG, Rogers TS, Klempner MS, Weber PC, et al.: The effect of dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on the synthesis of interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor by mononuclear cells.N Engl J Med320 :265 –271,1989 .[Abstract]

 Homan van der Heide JJ, Bilo HJG, Donker JM, Wilmik JM, Tegzess AM: Effect of dietary fish oil on renal function and rejection in cyclosporine-treated recipients of renal transplants.N Engl J Med329 :729 –773,1993 .

 Donadio Jr JV, Bergstralh EJ, Offord KP, Spencer DC, Holley KE: A controlled trial of fish oil in IgA nephropathy. Mayo Nephrology Collaborative Group.N Engl J Med331 :1194 –1199,1994 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Walton AJ, Snaith ML, Locniskar M, Cumberland AG, Morrow WJ, Isenberg DA: Dietary fish oil and the severity of symptoms in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.Ann Rheum Dis50 :463 –466,1991 .[Abstract]

 Clark WF, Parbtani A, Naylor CD, Levinton CM, Muirhead N, Spanner E, Huff MW, Philbrick DJ, Holub BJ: Fish oil in lupus nephritis: clinical findings and methodological implications.Kidney Int44 :75 –86,1993 .[Medline]

 Caughey GE, Mantzioris E, Gibson RA, Cleland LG, James MJ: The effect on human tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil.Am J Clin Nutr63 :116 –122,1996 .[Abstract]

 Lokesh BR, Sayers TJ, Kinsella JE: Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor synthesis by mouse peritoneal macrophages is enhanced by dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.Immunol Lett23 :281 –285,1990 .[Medline]

 Hardardottir I, Kinsella JE: Tumor necrosis factor production by murine resident peritoneal macrophages is enhanced by dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.Biochim Biophys Acta1095 :187 –195,1991 .[Medline]

 Blok WL, Vogels MT, Curfs JH, Eling WM, Buurman WA, van der Meer JW: Dietary fish-oil supplementation in experimental gram-negative infection and in cerebral malaria in mice.J Infect Dis165 :898 –903,1992 .[Medline]

 Ertel W, Morrison MH, Ayala A, Chaudry IH: Modulation of macrophage membrane phospholipids by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids increases interleukin 1 release and prevents suppression of cellular immunity following hemorrhagic shock.Arch Surg128 :15 –20,1993 .[Abstract]

 Blok WL, de Bruijn MF, Leenen PJ, Eling WM, van Rooijen N, Stanley ER, Buurman WA, van der Meer JW: Dietary n-3 fatty acids increase spleen size and postendotoxin circulating TNF in mice; role of macrophages, macrophage precursors, and colony-stimulating factor-1.J Immunol157 :5569 –5573,1996 .[Abstract]

 Blok WL, Katan MB, van der Meer JW: Modulation of inflammation and cytokine production by dietary (n-3) fatty acids.J Nutr126 :1515 –1533,1996 .[Medline]

 Ross R: The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: a perspective for the 1990s.Nature362 :801 –809,1993 .[Medline]

 Ross R: Atherosclerosis—an inflammatory disease.N Engl J Med340 :115 –26,1999 .[Free Full Text]

 Wick G, Schett G, Amberger A, Kleindienst R, Xu Q: Is atherosclerosis an immunologically mediated disease?Immunol Today16 :27 –33,1995 .[Medline]

 Fogari R, Zoppi A, Marasi G, Vanasia A, Villa G: Associations between plasma fibrinogen levels and cardiovascular risk factors in hypertensive men.J Cardiovasc Risk1 :341 –345,1994 .[Medline]

 Mendall MA, Patel P, Ballam L, Strachan D, Northfield TC: C reactive protein and its relation to cardiovascular risk factors: a population based cross sectional study.BMJ312 :1061 –1065,1996 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Mendall MA, Patel P, Asante M, Ballam L, Morris J, Strachan DP, Camm AJ, Northfield TC: Relation of serum cytokine concentrations to cardiovascular risk factors and coronary heart disease.Heart78 :273 –277,1997 .[Abstract]

 Rosengren A, Wilhelmsen L, Welin L, Tsipogianni A, Teger-Nilsson AC, Wedel H: Social influences and cardiovascular risk factors as determinants of plasma fibrinogen concentration in a general population sample of middle aged men.BMJ300 :634 –638,1990 .[Medline]

 de Maat MP, Pietersma A, Kofflard M, Sluiter W, Kluft C: Association of plasma fibrinogen levels with coronary artery disease, smoking and inflammatory Markers.Atherosclerosis121 :185 –191,1996 .[Medline]

 Lee AJ, Smith WC, Lowe GD, Tunstall-Pedoe H: Plasma fibrinogen and coronary risk factors: the Scottish Heart Health Study.J Clin Epidemiol43 :913 –919,1990 .[Medline]

 Montgomery HE, Clarkson P, Nwose OM, Mikailidis DP, Jagroop IA, Dollery C, Moult J, Benhizia F, Deanfield J, Jubb M, World M, McEwan JR, Winder A, Humphries S: The acute rise in plasma fibrinogen concentration with exercise is influenced by the G-453-A polymorphism of the beta-fibrinogen gene.Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol16 :386 –391,1996 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Mittleman MA, Maclure M, Tofler GH, Sherwood JB, Goldberg RJ, Muller JE: Triggering of acute myocardial infarction by heavy physical exertion. Protection against triggering by regular exertion. Determinants of Myocardial Infarction Onset Study Investigators.N Engl J Med329 :1677 –1683,1993 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Willich SN, Lewis M, Lowel H, Arntz HR, Schubert F, Schroder R: Physical exertion as a trigger of acute myocardial infarction. Triggers and Mechanisms of Myocardial Infarction Study Group.N Engl J Med329 :1684 –1690,1993 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Housley E, Leng GC, Donnan PT, Fowkes FG: Physical activity and risk of peripheral arterial disease in the general population: Edinburgh Artery Study.J Epidemiol Community Health47 :475 –480,1993 .[Abstract]

 Stratton JR, Chandler WL, Schwartz RS, Cerqueira MD, Levy WC, Kahn SE, Larson VG, Cain KC, Beard JC, Abrass IB: Effects of physical conditioning on fibrinolytic variables and fibrinogen in young and old healthy adults.Circulation83 :1692 –1697,1991 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Rankinen T, Rauramaa R, Vaisanen S, Penttila I, Saarikoski S, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A: Inverse relationship between physical activity and plasma fibrinogen in postmenopausal women.Atherosclerosis102 :181 –186,1993 .[Medline]

 Lassila R, Peltonen S, Lepantalo M, Saarinen O, Kauhanen P, Manninen V: Severity of peripheral atherosclerosis is associated with fibrinogen and degradation of cross-linked fibrin.Arterioscler Thromb13 :1738 –1742,1993 .[Abstract]

 Mori T, Sasaki J, Kawaguchi H, Handa K, Takada Y, Matsunaga A, Kono S, Arakawa K: Serum glycoproteins and severity of coronary atherosclerosis.Am Heart J129 :234 –238,1995 .[Medline]

 Heinrich J, Schulte H, Schonfeld R, Kohler E, Assmann G: Association of variables of coagulation, fibrinolysis and acute-phase with atherosclerosis in coronary and peripheral arteries and those arteries supplying the brain.Thromb Haemost73 :374 –379,1995 .[Medline]

 Mohamed-Ali V, Goodrick S, Rawesh A, Katz DR, Miles JM, Yudkin JS, Klein S, Coppack SW: Subcutaneous adipose tissue releases interleukin-6, but not tumor necrosis factor-alpha, in vivo.J Clin Endocrinol Metab82 :4196 –4200,1997 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Yudkin JS, Stehouwer CD, Emeis JJ, Coppack SW: C-reactive protein in healthy subjects: associations with obesity, insulin resistance, and endothelial dysfunction: a potential role for cytokines originating from adipose tissue?Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol19 :972 –978,1999 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Castell JV, Gomez-Lechon MJ, David M, Andus T, Geiger T, Trullenque R, Fabra R, Heinrich PC: Interleukin-6 is the major regulator of acute phase protein synthesis in adult human hepatocytes.FEBS Lett242 :237 –239,1989 .[Medline]

 Khalfoun B, Thibault F, Watier H, Bardos P, Lebranchu Y: Docosahexaenoic and eisosapentaenoic acids inhibit in vitro human endothelial cell production of interleukin-6. In Honn KV, Nigam S, Marnett LJ (eds):"Eicosanoids and Other Bioactive Lipids in Cancer, Inflammation, and Radiation Injury 2." New York: Plenum,1997 .

 Fishman D, Faulds G, Jeffery R, Mohamed-Ali V, Yudkin JS, Humphries S, Woo P: The effect of novel polymorphisms in the interleukin-6 (IL-6) gene on IL-6 transcription and plasma IL-6 levels, and an association with systemic-onset juvenile chronic arthritis.J Clin Invest102 :1369 –1376,1998 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Maes M, Smith R, Christophe A, Cosyns P, Desnyder R, Meltzer H: Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased omega 3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20: 4 omega 6/C20:5 omega 3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids.J Affect Disord38 :35 –46,1996 .[Medline]

 Maes M, Smith R, Christophe A, Vandoolaeghe E, Van Gastel A, Neels H, Demedts P, Wauters A, Meltzer HY: Lower serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in major depression and in depressed men with serious suicidal attempts: relationship with immune-inflammatory markers.Acta Psychiatr Scand95 :212 –221,1997 .[Medline]

 Peet M, Murphy B, Shay J, Horrobin D: Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients.Biol Psychiatry43 :315 –319,1998 .[Medline]

 Maes M, Song C, Lin A et al: The effects of psychological stress on the immune system in humans.Biol Psychiatry42(Suppl) :5S ,1997 .

 Maes M, Christophe A, Bosmans E, Lin A, Neels H: In humans, serum polyunsaturated fatty acid levels predict the response of proinflammatory cytokines to psychologic stress.Biol Psychiatry47 :910 –920,2000 .[Medline]

 Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, Rueter S, Zboyan HA, Diamond E, Cress KK, Marangell LB: Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder: a preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.Arch Gen Psychiatry56 :407 –412,1999. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Locke CA, Stoll AL: Omega-3 fatty acids in major depression.World Rev Nutr Diet89 :173 –85,2001 .[Medline]

 Robinson DR, Pricket JD, Makoul GT, Steinberg AD, Colvin RB: Dietary fish oil reduces progression of established renal disease in (NZB x NZW) F1 mice and delays renal disease in BXSB and MRL/1 strains.Arthritis Rheum29 :539 –546,1986 .[Medline]

 Prickett JD, Trentham DE, Robinson DR: Dietary fish oil augments the induction of arthritis in rats immunized with type II collagen.J Immunol132 :725 –729,1984 .[Abstract]

 Robinson DR, Tateno S, Knoell C, Olesiak W, Xu L, Hirai A, Guo M, Colvin RB: Dietary marine lipids suppress murine autoimmune disease.J Int Med225(Suppl) :211 –216,1989 .

 Kremer JM, Bigauoette J, Michalek AV, Timchalk MA, Lininger L, Rynes RI, Huyck C, Zieminski J, Bartholomew LE: Effects of manipulating dietary fatty acids on clinical manifestations of rheumatoid arthritis.Lanceti :184 –187,1985 .

 Kremer JM, Jubiz W, Michalek A, Rynes RI, Bartholomew LE, Bigaouette J, Timchalk M, Beeler D, Lininger L: Fish-oil fatty acid supplementation in active rheumatoid arthritis. A double-blinded, controlled, crossover study.Ann Intern Med106 :497 –503,1987 .[Medline]

 Sperling RI, Weinblatt M, Robin JL, Ravalese J 3rd, Hoover RL, House F, Coblyn JS, Fraser PA, Spur BW, Robinson DR, et al: Effects of dietary supplementation with marine fish oil on leukocyte lipid mediator generation and function in rheumatoid arthritis.Arthritis Rheum30 :988 –997,1987 .[Medline]

 James MJ, Cleland LG: Dietary n-3 fatty acids and therapy for rheumatoid arthritis.Semin Arthritis Rheum27 :85 –97,1997 .[Medline]

 Fortin PR, Lew RA, Liang MH, Wright EA, Beckett LA, Chalmers TC, Sperling RI: Validation of a meta-analysis: the effects of fish oil in rheumatoid arthritis.J Clin Epidemiol48 :1379 –1390,1995 .[Medline]

 Elson CO: Genes, microbes, and T cells—new therapeutic targets in Crohn’s disease.N Engl J Med346 :614 –616,2002 .[Free Full Text]

 McCall TB, O’Leary D, Bloomfield J, O’Morain CA: Therapeutic potential of fish oil in the treatment of ulcerative colitis.Aliment Pharmacol Ther3 :415 –424,1989 .[Medline]

 Salomon P, Kornbluth AA, Janowitz HD: Treatment of ulcerative colitis with fish oil in 3 omega fatty acid: an open trial.J Clin Gastroenterol12 :157 –161,1990 .[Medline]

 Belluzzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, Pera A, Boschi S, Miglioli M: Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn’s disease.N Engl J Med334 :1557 –1560,1996 .[Abstract/Free Full Text]

 Endres S, Lorenz R, Loeschke: Lipid treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care2 :117 –120,1999 .[Medline]

 Laitinen LA, Laitinen A, Haahtela T: Airway mucosal inflammation even in patients with newly diagnosed asthma.Am Rev Respir Dis147 :697 –704,1993 .[Medline]

 Ziboh VA: 3 polyunsaturated fatty acid constituents of fish oil and the management of skin inflammatory and scaly disorders. In Simopoulos AP, Kifer RR, Martin RE, Barlow SM (eds):"Health Effects of 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Seafoods," vol. 66, World Rev Nutr Diet. Basel: Karger, pp425 –435,1991 .

These and other references to scientific data about omega 3 fatty acids and CLA are listed on the web site of the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.

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